Foundation and it's types

                                       foundation

A foundation (or, more commonly, foundations) is the element of an architectural structure which connects it to the ground, and transfers loads from the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally considered either shallow or deep.Foundation engineering is the application of soil mechanics and rock mechanics (Geo technical engineering) in the design of foundation elements of structures

types of foundation

1)shallow foundation:- 

 Shallow foundations are also called spread footings or open footings. The 'open' refers to the fact that the foundations are made by first excavating all the earth till the bottom of the footing, and then constructing the footing. During the early stages of work, the entire footing is visible to the eye, and is therefore called an open foundation. The idea is that each footing takes the concentrated load of the column and spreads it out over a large area, so that the actual weight on the soil does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

2)strip footings:-

Strip footings are commonly found in load-bearing masonry construction, and act as a long strip that supports the weight of an entire wall.  These are used where the building loads are carried by entire walls rather than isolated columns, such as in older buildings made of masonry.

3)Raft Foundations:-

Raft Foundations, also called Mat Foundations, are most often used when basements are to be constructed. In a raft, the entire basement floor slab acts as the foundation; the weight of the building is spread evenly over the entire footprint of the building. It is called a raft because the building is like a vessel that 'floats' in a sea of soil.

Mat Foundations are used where the soil is week, and therefore building loads have to be spread over a large area, or where columns are closely spaced, which means that if individual footings were used, they would touch each other.

4)PILE FOUNDATIONS:-

A pile is basically a long cylinder of a strong material such as concrete that is pushed into the ground to act as a steady support for structures built on top of it.

Pile foundations are used in the following situations:

    When there is a layer of weak soil at the surface. This layer cannot support the weight of the building, so the loads of the building have to bypass this layer and be transferred to the layer of stronger soil or rock that is below the weak layer.
    When a building has very heavy, concentrated loads, such as in a high rise structure, bridge, or water tank.

Types of Civil Engineering Branches

1. Construction Engineering:-

   •  This civil engineering branch deals with the planning, construction and maintenance of structures. Construction engineering is the planning and execution of designs from site development, environmental, structural, transportation and structural engineers. 
   • They must ensure that the plans that have been designed by other engineers are implemented to their exact specifications.
   •  Construction engineers will supervise field work during the entire project. 
   • They are in a sense a cross between engineer and manager as they will oversee the project from start to finish and handle any problems that come up throughout the duration of the project.

2.Structural Engineering:-

• This branch of civil engineering encompasses the structural analysis and design of structures. 
• It is the responsibility of the structural engineer to analyze and design a structure that will safely bear or resist the stresses, forces and loads. 
• The design must satisfy the project specifications while meeting all safety regulations.
• The structure must endure massive loads as well as natural disasters and climate changes.

3.Geo technical Engineering:-

• In Geo technical engineering the engineer studies soil, foundations and bearing capacities. 
• The engineer will study the behavior of the earth materials and how they will affect a structure that is to be constructed. 
• They will also evaluate per-existing structures that are showing signs of problems with the earth materials under or near the structure.

4.Transportation Engineering:-

• Civil engineers that specialize in transportation engineering will work with the planning, construction and management of transportation facilities.
•  They will design and implement the infrastructures that deal with transportation in order to provide a safe, comfortable, convenient, economical and environmentally compatible mode of transport. 
• There are six divisions related to transportation engineering: highway, air transportation, waterway, aerospace, coastal & ocean and urban transportation.

5.Water Resource Engineering:-

•  These engineers deal with the design and construction of hydraulic structures. 
• These structures include dams, canals and water distribution system.
• The engineer is responsible for the design of the structure as well as the implementation and safety precautions that must be closely adhered to when dealing with hydraulic structures.
  

  6.Environmental engineering;-

  • study of environment friendly designs,pollution and their resolutions and sewage management. Many engineers focus solely upon the crisis of pollution and coming up with solutions as well as
  • determining new and inventive ways for sewage management and other

tunnel engineering

1. tunnel can be use way for any transportation or cannals.
2. A tunnel is an underground passageway, dug through the surrounding soil/earth/rock and enclosed except for entrance and exit, commonly at each end.
3. A pipeline is not a tunnel, though some recent tunnels have used immersed tube construction techniques rather than traditional tunnel boring methods.
4. A tunnel may be for foot or vehicular road traffic, for rail traffic, or for a canal. The central portions of a rapid transit network are usually in tunnel.
5.  Some tunnels are aqueducts to supply water for consumption or for hydroelectric stations or are rs. utility tunnels are used for routing steam, chilled water, electrical power or telecommunication cables, as well as connecting buildings for convenient passage of people and equipment.
6. Secret tunnels are built for military purposes, or by civilians for smuggling of weapons, contraband, or people. Special tunnels, such as wildlife crossing, are built to allow wildlife to cross human-made barriers safely.

 

Highway engineering

• Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching from civil engineering that involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective 
• transportation  of people and goods. Highway engineering became prominent towards the latter half of the 20th Century after World War 2. 
• Standards of highway  engineering are continuously being improved. Highway engineers must take into account future traffic flows, design of highway intersections/interchanges, geometric alignment and design, highway pavement materials and design, structural design of pavement thickness, and pavement maintenance.

Economic of Facility Investments

1) EFFICIENCY OF EVALUATION SYSTEM

1.  The essential element of economic evaluation is project cash flow analysis, which requires quantifying all monetary items and specifying the time of their occurrence.
2.   conceptually depicts the information for an economic evaluation of a capital building construction project. 
3. All expenditures and revenues should be accounted for the analysis in forms of quantity and time within the prediction period.
4.  For multiple alternates (the initial plan and its revisions), quantifying and scheduling of all the items for each alternate is a challenging task. A practical system, for the use by practitioners, should be able to deal with all the quantity and time information in an integrated way based on automated estimating and scheduling.
5.  However, the system should consider the trade-off between automation and flexibility – the efficient use of un-detailed project information supported by the automation, as well as the flexibility, i.e., allowing manual adjustments by users.

  

2) CONSTRUCTION COST ESTIMATING. 

1. Estimating in the Conceptual Phase In the conceptual phase, cost estimate with a reasonable accuracy is required within a limited time period while information is limited .
2. Various estimating methods for the conceptual phase have been proposed: simple square foot method, regression analysis, probabilistic estimating, neural network, case-based reasoning, fuzzy models, etc.
3. Meanwhile there are criticisms on some empirical estimating models, e.g., black box with no explanation of output .
4.  In the conceptual phase, cost estimators commonly use analogy-based estimating methods, i.e., an estimator selects a similar one from past projects and adjusts it based on similarities and differences perceived by the estimator, which depends on his individual experience or perception. 
5. Also, simple square foot or assembly costs methods are preferred by many cost estimators in the conceptual phase.
6.  However, under limited project information in the conceptual phase, lack of historical data frequently could lead to the estimator’s bias, which could result in under budget or over budget.
7.  Combined Cost Estimating Estimators usually desire to have their estimates compared with the actual costs of past similar projects, which makes them feel comfortable. 
8. Also, many professionals in construction desire to have a list of quantities and costs in a form of cost breakdown structure (CBS), in which the real values are present for different work packages even though the CBS has a low level of detail in an early phase. 
9. For instance, a building is decomposed into work elements whereas unit cost of each element can be assessed and the total cost is the sum of the products of the quantities multiplied by their corresponding unit costs. 
10. Considering the points addressed above, the current study proposes a combined estimating method using historical data and assembly costs for the conceptual phase. There are advantages by using both methods simultaneously to determine an estimate in such an early phase. 
11. A historical data-based estimate can be made using similar projects data selected based on their similarity to the current project while the similarity is determined by major project information (design parameters). 
12. At the same time, an assembly cost-based estimate can be prepared by calculating the required quantity and cost of an assembly (a set of material/labor/equipment) for major construction methods selected by estimators for different work packages. 
13. Even if using such un-detailed information, the comparison S13-5 468 of the two estimates can reduce the chances of possible under or over estimate and improve estimators’ confidence.
14.  Data for the Combined Cost Estimating The data for the estimating method described above include historical data for past projects and different types of assembly costs. 
15. The historical data, in which the projects (all single-use buildings) are classified by the type of building, provide unit cost as well as duration information. Different types of building should be considered in cost estimating since the type of building has an important effect on the project cost.
16.  Each project needs to be indexed by major parameters, i.e., site, size of building (square foot and story), building-to-land ratio, floor space index, etc. 
17. These building characteristics are used as the multiple search conditions to find similar projects to estimate the current project.
18.  When a building includes multiple uses, the system calculates a weighted average unit cost per area (M2 ) to estimate the total cost whereas weights are determined based on the areas of different uses. 
19. An assembly represents a specific construction method, which involves a set of materials, labors, and equipments.
20.  Each assembly has its own pre-determined equations (developed by experienced estimators) to estimate the required quantity for a set of materials, labors, and equipments and its composite unit cost. 
21. For instance, if a user selects concrete for the superstructure of a building, the program estimates the quantities of materials (concrete, form, steel, etc.), labors (formwork, reinforcing, and concrete placement, finishing), and equipments (concrete pumps) based on the design parameters, i.e., the perimeter of the building, stories, floor area, height, etc. 

3). DEVELOPMENT OF THE SYSTEM.

1.  Framework of the System The system consists of four analytical steps (project planning, construction costs estimation, projection of incomes and expenditures, and economic evaluation) and database. 
2. The database in the current system includes historical data (cost and duration) for 301 past projects and 131 different types of assembly (equations and composite unit costs).
3. the overall framework of the system, in which project information flows from Project Planning to Economic Evaluation.
4. The system is dynamic in terms of that changes in a previous step are automatically reflected in the next steps.
5. Commonly, project planning and cost estimating are performed using estimating software programs while the others separately using economic evaluation software programs. A detailed description of each analytical step and linkage between the steps is provided below. 
6. Project Planning In the system, users develop a project plan for one or multiple buildings by specifying major project information, which include project name, location, site area, building area, floor area, gross floor area, building-to-land ratio, floor space index, number of stories, average height, areas of different uses, perimeter of building, area of exterior finish, parking area, etc. 

 4) CONCLUSIONS 

1. The current study developed a comprehensive but practical economic evaluation system for capital building construction projects, which can be used in the conceptual phase. 
2. This system has unique aspects: the efficient management of information flow based on the integration of analytical steps; the combined cost estimating method, which enhances the confidence in the final estimate; the automated tabulation and scheduling of cash flow; 4) tradeoff between automation and flexibility; and  the revision features. 
3. Regarding the estimating method, the comparison of the two types of estimates was so favored by practitioners during the case study. 
4. There are improvements to make for future study: the generic Scurve needs to be developed for different types of building and more historical data and assemblies need to be accumulated, which improve the accuracy of the estimates.

use heavy equipments in civil engineering

      Excavator 

• An excavator is a construction vehicle used to excavate or move large objects. 
• An Excavator is basically made up of  2 parts: a driving base associated a powerful boom arm with an attachment designed for excavating.
•  The o-operator sits within a small cab connected to the base and controls the arm.The excavator uses a Hydraulic system to generate a Hydraulic force to control the mechanical arm of the machine.
• It also uses a chain wheel system for it’s movement. Excavators are been used in large and small scale constructions.
•  They are used for small housing projects to do a cut and fill, used in road construction, used in marine structures to place armors and large rocks,   and also been used in larger sites to excavate, move construction material, remove construction waste etc….. 
• There are several types of excavators which are classified on use, brand and purpose.

                2.use Of steer loaders in construction 

• A skid loader or skid-steer loader is a small rigid frame, engine-powered machine with lift arms used to attach a wide variety of labor-saving tools or attachment.     

                 3.use of grader in construction

•    a grader mostly use in before road construction.
• A grader, also commonly referred to as a road grader or a motor grader, is a construction machine  with a long blade used to create a flat surface during the grading process. 
• Typical models have three axle, with the engine and cab situated above the rear axles at one end of the vehicle and a third axle at the front end of the vehicle, with the blade in between. In certain countries, for example in  Finland , almost every grader is equipped with a second blade that is placed in front of the front axle.
•  Some construction personnel refer to the entire machine as "the blade". Capacities range from a blade width of 2.50 to 7.30 m and engines from 93–373 kw(125–500 HP). Certain graders can operate multiple attachments, or be used for separate tasks like underground mining.

               4.use trucks in civil engineering 

• Haul trucks are used in large surface mines and quarries. 
•  They have a rigid frame and conventional steering with drive at the rear wheel. As of late 2013, the largest ever production haul truck is the 450 metric tones.

Work or duties in civil engineer

              duties of civil engineer

1. Analyze long range plans, survey reports, maps, and other data in order to plan projects
2. Consider construction costs, government regulations, potential environmental hazards, and other factors in planning the stages of, and risk analysis for, a project
3. Compile and submit permit applications to local, state, and federal agencies, verifying that projects comply with various regulations
4. Perform or oversee soil testing to determine the adequacy and strength of foundations
5. Test building materials, such as concrete, asphalt, or steel, for use in particular projects
6. Provide cost estimates for materials, equipment, or labor to determine a project’s economic feasibility
7. Use design software to plan and design transportation systems, hydraulic systems, and structures in line with industry and government standards
8. Perform or oversee surveying operations in order to establish reference points, grades, and elevations to guide construction
9. Present their findings to the public on topics such as bid proposals, environmental impact statements, or descriptions of property
10. Manage the repair, maintenance, and replacement of public and private infrastructure